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Formation (of the Highland Regiments)
--------excerpt from The Scottish Highlanders and their Regiments
by Micheal Brander
copyright 1971 Barnes and Noble
abridged by twinpineskennel for use on Gaia



On the 3rd of August, 1667 King Charles II issued, under the Great Seal, a commission to the Earl of Atholl to raise and keep such a number of men as he should think fit "to be a constant guard for securing the peace of the Highlands" and "to watch upon the braes", his jurisdiction to extend to 'the shyres of Inverness, Nairn< Murray< Banff, Aberdeen, and Dumbarton.' This Highland Watch may thus be regarded as the forerunner of all the subsequent Highland Regiments.
In the 17th and for a large part of the 18th century there were no roads penetrating the Highlands and access could only be gained up the glens where the rivers flowed southwards. In those days the glens were well populated and each had its fighting men owing allegiance to their chieftain, great or small: for instance, a thousand Stewarts could be raised in Atholl alone, while Keppoch, only a minor Macdonald chieftain, could call out five hundred men.
The Highland Watch, as the force became known, developed as Independent Companies in increasing numbers towards the end of the 17th century, but in 1717, due largely to the conflicting loyalties resulting from the 'fifteen' rising, the Highland Companies were temporarily disbanded by George I. The southerner's suspicion of the Highlanders was displayed in the ' Disarming Acts' whigh followed the Rising, by which it became an offence for anyone to carry arms openly in the Highlands.
This must have proved particularly galling to the Highlander--for he was accustomed to carryinjg arms always,k and using them often.
As General Stewert indicated
A Highlander would fight tot the last drop of his blood at the command of his Chief, and if he thought that his honor, or that of his clan, insulted he was equally ready to call for redress and to seek revenge: yet with this disposition and though generally armed few lives were lost except in general engagements and skirmishes. This is particularly to be remarked in their personal encounters, duels and trials of strenth.
No doubt many Highlanders ignored the Disarming Acts, which at that time did not carry the death penalty as after Culloden, although severe enough. General Stewart mentioned 'An old gentleman in Athole, a friend of mine, Mr. Robertson of Auchleeks, carried this spirit so far, that disobeying all restrictions against carrying arms he never laid them aside, and wore his dirk even when sitting in his dining room , until his death in hes 87th year'.
In 1725, at the instigation of the Irish General George Wade, then C-in-C in Scotland, and about to start his epic road=making and fort-building program, six Independent Companies were raised under Simon, Lord Lovat, Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochnell, Colonel William Grant of Ballindalloch, who held the rank of Captains, and John Campbell of Carrick, Colin Campbell of Skipness and George Munro of Culcairn, who ranked as Lieutenants. These amounted to some five hundred men, raised mostly from clans supposedly loyal to the Hanoverian government. Their objects were to prevent theft and disorder in the Highlands and enforce the Disarming Acts. Whereas the early companies were clothed in their ordinary Highland garb, wearing local, or clan, tartan, General Wade regularized the tartan for all the companies, and from this evolved the dardk neutral sett which is now known as 'Black Watch".
TO BE CONTINUED

An account of their first battle, at Fontenoy in 1745

About four o'clock in the morning the guards and the highlanders began the battle and attacked a body of French troops near Vezon. Although their adversaries were stubborn and were entrenched in the village breast high, the guards with their bayonets and the highlanders with sword, pisto and dirk forced them out, killing a considerable number. 'Nothing suited the highlanders more than this sort of fighting. They delighted to run upon the enemy until they came within pistol shot of them, when they discharged their pistols and, running forward, hurled the steelclaw butted weapon at the faces of the foe. Then brandishing their broadswords, they would get to work with them, and those who won within the highland guard were finished with the dirk.

General Stewart of Farth recorded:
Lt. Col Sir Robert Munro of Foulis, 1st col of the black watch, though extremely corpulent, was a most able commander and had obtained leave for the men to fight in their own way. According to the usage of his countrymen he ordered the regiment to clap to the ground on receiving the French fire. Instantlyafter its discharge the men sprang up and coming close to the enemy poured their shot upon them to the certain destructio of multitudes and drove them precipitately back through their own lines: then retreating, drew up again and attacked a second time agter the same manner. These attacks they repeated several times on the same day to the surprise of the whole army. Sir Robert was everywhere with his regiment notwithstanding his great corpulency: and when in the trenches he was hauled out by the legs and arms by his own men. But it was to be observed that when he commanded the whole regiment to clap to the ground, he himself alone stood upright, with the colours behind him, ready to receive the fire of the enemy; and this because,k ;as he said, though he could easily lie down his great bulk would not suffer him to rise so quickly.

They soon made their mark in Europe, and even further afield. Nor is it surprising, considering how little was known of them in britain in the 18th century, that some remarkably strange ideas about them were current. The French in Guadaloupe in 1759 believed...
that Les Sauvages d'Ecosse would neither take nor give quarter, and that they were so nimble that no man could catch them, so nobody could escape them; that no man had a chance against their broadswords and that with a ferocity natural to savages they made no prisoners and spared neither man worman nor child.

An article in 'the vienna gazette' of 1762 stated authoritatively;

The Scotch Highlanders are a people totally different in their dress, manners and temper from the other inhabitants of Britain. They are caught in the mountains when young and still run with a surprising degree of swiftness. As they are strangers to fear, they make very good soldiers when disciplined. The men are of low stature, and the most of them old, or very young. They discover an extraordinary submission and love for their officers, who are all young and handsome...it is to be hoped that their king's laudable, though late, endeavours to civilise and instruct them in the principles of christianity will meet with success...the french held them at first in great contempt, but they have met with them of late so often, and seen them in the front of so many battles, that they firmly believe that there are twelve batalions of them in the army instead of two.

Forbes

origin of name: place-name, aberdeenshire
plant badge: broom
war cry: lonach
pipe music: the battle of glen eurann
crest badge a stag's head, proper
motto: grece me guide
gaelic name: Foirbeis

This clan traces its origin to John of Forbes who held the lands of forbes in aberdeenshire in the 13th century. in 1303 alexander of forbes was killed during the attack on urquhart castle by the english, and his son was killed at the battle of dupplin in 1322. alexander forbes was created a peer by james II in 1442, as baron forbes, and he married the greaddaugher of king robert III.
The Forbeses of culloden were descended from sir john forbes of forbes, thru the forbes of tolquhoun, and duncan forbes, the laird of culloden who was lord president of the court of session at the time of the '45, exercised his powerful influence to prevent many of the clans from joining the army of prince charles. king george II proved an ungrateful sovereign and forbes received no reward for his loyalty, not even repayment of his own money spent in military service.
the peerage of pitsligo was conferred on alexander forbes in 1633. alexander, 4th lord pitsligo, protested against the union of 1707 and tookk part in the jacobite rising of 1715 and 1745. his estates were forfeited and on the death of his son the title became dormant. the forbeses of craigievar were descended from james 2nd lord forbes. sir william, 8th of craigievar, succeeded his cousin and lord sempill, premier baron of scotland.








Douglas
origin of name: place-name, lanark meaning black stream
war cry: a douglas, a douglas
crest badge: on a chapeau a salamander, vert, in fire, proper
motto: jamais arriere (never behind)
gaelic name: Dubhglas

The origin of this, one of the most powerful families in scotland, in unknown. of them is was said, "men have seen the stream, but what eye ever beheld its source?" In the 12th century they are found in lanarkshire.
William, of douglas, who lived in the 12th century, had six sons, five of whom were associated with the province of moray. the douglases were prominent in the struggle ofr scotland's independence in the days of wallce and bruce, and 'the good sir james' while carrying bruce's heart, was killed fighting against the moors in spain in 1330. his nephew, william, was created earl of douglas in 1357, and became earl of mar by his marriage with margaret, sister of the 13th earl of mar. james, 2nd earl, was killed at otterburn in 1388, and from him was descended the queensberry branch. james's half=brother george became earl of angus. the earldom of douglas was forfeited in 1455 while held by james, 9th earl.
george douglas obtained the earldom of angus in 1389 when his mother resigned it in his favour. he married mary, daughter of robert III. archibald, 5th earl, was known as 'bell the cat' because at a secret meeting of scottish nobles to discuss means of ridding the court of the favourites of james III, lord gray likened those in conference to mice and asked who had courage to bell the cat. archibald exclaimed, "i shall bell the cat" archibald, 6th earl, was for a long period in rebellion against james V, and kept the young king a prisoner for over three years. william, 11th earl of angus, was created marquis of douglas in 1633.
archibald, 3rd marquis, was created duke of douglas in 1703. he died without heir in 1761, and his titles, except the dukedom, passed to the duke of hamilton

just want to remind you again, if there is anything you want more info on, feel free to ask, and if you have a tidbit of history, or for that mater a whole book, jump right in and start posting more history, this thread is open for all to use! oh and please forgive my typo's i get to going faster than my hands can keep up sometimes lol


back to the Highland Regiments for a bit


Chapter 2
Dress



The original uniform of the Highland soldier consisted of the full Highland dress of breacan an fheilidh (fey-lee), or plaid and kilt in one, termed in regimental orders 'the belted plaid'. This consisted of twelve yards, or six yards double-width, of tartan, serving as greatcoat, blanket and groundsheet in one, in addition to which the highlanders were provided with a short jacket, tartan hose and flat blue bonnet. The sporran, or purse, generally of badger skin, whihc was normal civilian wear, wa sadopted by the army later.
The full dress was put on in the following manner: the belt was laid down with the plaid over it, the centre of the plaid being over the belt: it was then neatly pleated across the belt, but leaving a part at each end unpleated: the belt was then fastened round the waist, so that the lower half of the plaid formed the feile, or kilt, of which the unpleated part formed the breacan, or plaid, which was fastedned on the left should, or could be thrown round the shoulders like a cloak. By loosening the belt the shole became a blanket, or plaid. (Plaide is the Gaelic for blanket)
It is indicative of the hardiness of the highlander that, if stranded overnight in the winter when out hunting, it was their custom to soak their plaid in an icy burn, then wring it out until it only contained a little moisture. They then wrapped themselves in it and lay down in the open in the shelter of a gorse bush, or a boulder, the plaid freezing on the outside and thus forming a natural insulation against the weather. Anyone rolling a snowball for a pillow was liable to be considered 'effeminate'.

since I was on wiki anyway smile

A 10th century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the earliest surviving source to use the word Scotland. This was derived from the Latin Scoti, of uncertain origin, applied to Gaels. The Late Latin word Scotia (land of the Gaels) was eventually used only of Gaelic-speaking Scotland. This name was employed alongside Albania or Albany, from the Gaelic Alba. The use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of Scotland became common only in the Late Middle Ages. In modern times the word Scot is applied equally to all inhabitants regardless of their ancestral ethnicity, as the nation has had a civic, rather than an ethnic or linguistic, orientation for most of the last millennium.

Medieval origin myths derived Scotland's name from the Egyptian princess Scota, mother of Goídel Glas, eponymous ancestor of the Gaels.


[edit] History
Main article: History of Scotland

[edit] Early Scotland
Main article: Prehistoric Scotland

Skara Brae, a neolithic settlement, located in the Bay of Skaill on the west coast of mainland Orkney.Repeated glaciations, which covered the entire land-mass of modern Scotland, have destroyed any traces of human habitation before the mesolithic period. It is believed that the first post-glacial group(s) of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 11,000 years ago, as the ice sheet retreated after the last ice age. Groups of settlers began building the first permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. A site from this period is the well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the Mainland of Orkney. Neolithic habitation, burial and ritual sites are particularly common and well-preserved in the Northern Isles and Western Isles, where lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone.





The Picts left a larger number of decorated stones. This one is a replica of the Hilton of Cadboll Stone, standing in situ, with the original version now in the Museum of Scotland.The written history of Scotland began with the arrival of the Roman Empire in southern and central Great Britain, when the Romans occupied what is now England and Wales, administering it as a province called Britannia. Roman occupation of Scotland was a series of brief interludes. In 83/4 AD the general Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the battle of Mons Graupius, and Roman forts were briefly set along the Gask Ridge close to the Highland Line (none are known to have ever been constructed beyond that line). Scotland is called Scotia in Latin. Three years after the battle the Roman armies had withdrawn to the Southern Uplands.[11] They erected Hadrian's Wall to control tribes on both sides of the wall,[12] but it effectively became the main northern border for the Romans throughout much of the later occupation of Britain, although they held the Antonine Wall in the Central Lowlands for two short periods. The last of these was during the time of Emperor Septimius Severus from 208 until 210.[13] The extent of Roman occupation of any significant part of Scotland was limited to a total of about 40 years, although their influence on the southern section of the country occupied by Brythonic tribes such as the Votadini and Damnonii would still have been considerable.[12]


[edit] Medieval Scotland
Main articles: Picts, Scotland in the High Middle Ages, and Scotland in the Late Middle Ages
The Kingdom of the Picts (based in Fortriu by the 6th century) was the state which eventually became known as "Alba" or "Scotland". The development of "Pictland", according to the historical model developed by Peter Heather, was a natural response to Roman imperialism.[14] Another view places emphasis on the Battle of Dunnichen, and the reign of Bruide mac Der Ilei (671-693), with another period of consolidation in the reign of Óengus mac Fergusa (732–761).[15] The Kingdom of the Picts as it was in the early 8th century, when Bede was writing, was largely the same as the kingdom of the Scots in the reign of Alexander (1107–1124). However, by the tenth century, the Pictish kingdom was increasingly dominated by what we can recognise as Gaelic culture, and had developed an Irish conquest myth around the ancestor of the contemporary royal dynasty, Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin).[16]


The decisive victory of Robert the Bruce over the English at Bannockburn was a defining moment establishing the Bruce dynasty and hence the independence of the Kingdom of the Scots.From a base of territory in eastern Scotland north of the River Forth and south of the River Oykel, the kingdom acquired control of the lands lying to the north and south. By the 12th century, the kings of Alba had added to their territories the English-speaking land in south-east and attained overlordship of Galloway and Norse-speaking Caithness; by the end of the 13th century, the kingdom had assumed approximately its modern borders. However, processes of cultural and economic change beginning in the 12th century ensured Scotland looked very different in the later Middle Ages. The stimulus for this was the reign of King David I and the so-called Davidian Revolution. Feudalism, government reorganisation and the first legally defined towns, called burghs, began in this period. These institutions and the immigration of French and Anglo-French knights and churchmen facilitated a process of cultural osmosis, whereby the culture and language of the low-lying and coastal parts of the kingdom's original territory in the east became, like the newly-acquired south-east, English-speaking, while the rest of the country retained the Gaelic language.[17]

The death of Alexander III in 1286, followed by the death of his grand-daughter Margaret, Maid of Norway, broke the succession line of Scotland's kings. This led to the intervention of Edward I of England. Edward established John Balliol as a sub-king, but this relationship broke down, leading to an ultimately unsuccessful attempt at total takeover by the English crown. This was famously opposed by William Wallace and others in the Wars of Scottish Independence, and in the divided country Robert de Brus, Earl of Carrick, became king (as Robert I). Robert, also known as "Robert the Bruce," had been excommunicated for bringing about the death of one of his rivals in church, and this excommunication was eventually expanded to the entire country.[18] War with England continued for several decades, and a civil war between the Bruce dynasty and the English-backed Balliols lasted until the middle of the 14th century. Although the Bruce dynasty was successful, David II's lack of an heir allowed his nephew Robert II to come to the throne and establish the Stewart Dynasty.[19] The Stewarts ruled Scotland for the remainder of the Middle Ages. The country they ruled experienced greater prosperity from the end of the 14th century through the Scottish Renaissance to the Reformation. This was despite continual warfare with England, the increasing division between Highlands and Lowlands, and a large number of royal minorities.[20]

Scotland Portal

[edit] Modern Scotland
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The discovery of North Sea oil transformed the Scottish economy in the late 20th centuryIn 1603, James VI King of Scots inherited the throne of the Kingdom of England, and became also King James I of England. With the exception of a short period under The Protectorate, Scotland remained a separate state, but there was considerable conflict between the crown and the Covenanters over the form of church government. After the Glorious Revolution and the overthrow of the Roman Catholic James VII by William and Mary, Scotland briefly threatened to select a different Protestant monarch from England. In 1707, however, following English threats to end trade and free movement across the border, the Scots Parliament and the Parliament of England enacted the twin Acts of Union, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Two major Jacobite risings launched from the Highlands of Scotland in 1715 and 1745 failed to remove the House of Hanover from the British throne. The deposed Jacobite Stuart claimants had remained popular in the Highlands and north-east, particularly amongst non-Presbyterians.

Following the Scottish Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, Scotland became one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. After World War II, Scotland experienced an industrial decline which was particularly acute. Only in recent decades has the country enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance. Factors which have contributed to this recovery include a resurgent financial services and electronics sector (see Silicon Glen), the proceeds of North Sea oil and gas, and latterly the devolved Scottish Parliament, established by the UK government under the Scotland Act 1998.


[edit] Politics
Main articles: Politics of Scotland and Scottish Parliament
Further information: Scottish Parliament general election, 2007

The Scottish Executive uses this stylized version of the Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom as used in Scotland as its logo.
Jack McConnell MSP has been the First Minister of Scotland since November 2001As one of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, the head of state in Scotland is the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II (since 1952). Constitutionally the United Kingdom is a unitary state with one sovereign parliament and government. Under a system of devolution (or home rule) Scotland was granted limited self-government after a referendum on devolution proposals in 1997. The British Parliament in Westminster retains the ability to amend, change, broaden or abolish the devolved government system at will. As such the Scottish Parliament is not sovereign.

Executive power in the United Kingdom is vested in the Queen-in-Council, while legislative power is vested in the Queen-in-Parliament (the Crown and the Parliament of the United Kingdom at Westminster in London). Under devolution executive and legislative powers in certain areas have been constitutionally delegated to the Scottish Executive and the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh respectively. The United Kingdom Parliament retains active power over Scotland's taxes, social security system, the military, international relations, broadcasting, and some other areas explicitly specified in the Scotland Act 1998 as reserved matters. The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all other areas relating to Scotland, and has limited power to vary income tax - also known as tartan tax - but has never exercised this power. The Scottish Parliament can refer devolved matters back to Westminster to be considered as part of United Kingdom-wide legislation by passing a Legislative Consent Motion if United Kingdom-wide legislation is considered to be more appropriate for certain issues. The programmes of legislation enacted by the Scottish Parliament have seen a divergence in the provision of public services compared to the rest of the United Kingdom. For instance, the costs of a university education, and care services for the elderly are free at point of use in Scotland, while fees are paid in the rest of the UK. Scotland is the first country in the UK to ban smoking in public places.[21]

The Scottish Parliament is a unicameral legislature comprising 129 Members, 73 of whom represent individual constituencies and are elected on a first past the post system; 56 are elected in eight different electoral regions by the additional member system, first elected on the 6 May 1999 and serving for a four year period. The Queen appoints one of the members of the Parliament, on the nomination of the Parliament, to be First Minister. Other Ministers are also appointed by the Queen on the nomination of the Parliament and together with the First Minister they make up Scottish Executive, the executive arm of government. The current (since 2001) First Minister is Jack McConnell of the Labour Party, who forms the government on a coalition basis with the Liberal Democrats, the leader of whom is the Deputy First Minister, currently Nicol Stephen[22]. The main opposition party is the Scottish National Party, which campaigns for Scottish independence. Other parties include the Conservative and Unionist Party, the Scottish Green Party, the Scottish Socialist Party and Solidarity.


The debating chamber of the Scottish Parliament Building contains a shallow horseshoe of seating for the Members of the Scottish ParliamentScotland is represented in the British House of Commons by 59 MPs elected from territory-based Scottish constituencies. The Scotland Office, a department of the United Kingdom government led by The Secretary of State for Scotland, is responsible for reserved matters. The Secretary of State for Scotland sits in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and prior to devolution headed the system of government in Scotland. The current Secretary of State for Scotland is Douglas Alexander. Until 1999, Scottish peers were entitled to sit in the House of Lords.

Political debate in Scotland has revolved around the constitution and this dominated the Scottish political scene in the latter half of the 20th century. Under the pressure of growing support for Scottish independence all three UK-wide parties advocated a policy of devolution to some degree during their history (although Labour and the Conservatives have also at times opposed it). Now that devolution has occurred, debate continues over whether the Scottish Parliament should accrue additional powers (for example over fiscal policy), or seek to obtain full independence with full sovereign powers (either through independence, a federal United Kingdom or a confederal arrangement). It remains to be seen [vague] whether the current devolution system satisfies Scottish demands for self-government or will strengthen demands for full independence.


[edit] Law
Main article: Scots law

Parliament House in Edinburgh is home to the High Court of Justiciary and the Court of Session which are the supreme courts of ScotlandScots law has a basis derived from Roman law combining features of both uncodified civil law, dating back to the Corpus Juris Civilis, and common law with mediaeval sources. The terms of the Treaty of Union with England in 1707, guaranteed the continued existence of a separate legal system in Scotland from that of England and Wales. Prior to 1611, there were several regional law systems in Scotland, most notably Udal Law in Orkney and Shetland — based on Old Norse Law. Various other systems derived from common Celtic or Brehon Laws survived in the Highlands until the 1800s.

Scots law provides for three types of courts responsible for the administration of justice in Scotland: civil, criminal and heraldic. The supreme civil court is the Court of Session, although civil appeals can be taken to the House of Lords in London. The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court. Both courts are housed at Parliament House, Edinburgh which was the home of the pre-Union Parliament of Scotland. The sheriff court is the main criminal and civil court. There are 49 sheriff courts throughout the country.[23] District courts were introduced in 1975 for minor offences. The Court of the Lord Lyon regulates heraldry in Scotland.

Scots law is also unique in that it allows three verdicts in criminal cases including the controversial 'not proven' verdict.[24][25]


[edit] Administrative subdivisions
Main article: Subdivisions of Scotland

The City Chambers on George Square, designed by William Young and completed in 1889, are the headquarters of Glasgow City Council. They are designated as a Category A listed building by Historic Scotland.Historical subdivisions of Scotland include the mormaerdom, stewartry, earldom, burgh, parish, county and regions and districts. The names of these areas are still sometimes used as geographical descriptors.

Modern Scotland is subdivided in various ways depending on the purpose. For local government, 32 council areas were set up in 1996,[26] which are administered by unitary authorities responsible for the provision of all local government services. Community councils are informal organisations that represent specific sub-divisions of a council area.

For the Scottish Parliament, there are 73 constituencies and 8 regions. For the Parliament of the United Kingdom there are 59 constituencies. The Scottish fire brigades and police forces are still based on the system of regions introduced in 1975. For healthcare and postal districts, and a number of other governmental and non-governmental organisations such as the churches, there are other long-standing methods of subdividing Scotland for the purposes of administration.

City status in the United Kingdom is determined by letters patent.[27] There are six cities in Scotland: Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and more recently Inverness, and Stirling.


[edit] Geography & natural history

Map of ScotlandMain article: Geography of Scotland
Scotland comprises the northern third of the island of Great Britain, which lies off the coast of north west Europe. The total land mass is 78,772 km² (30,414 mi²).[28] Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for 96 kilometres (60 miles) between the River Tweed on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east. The island of Ireland lies only 30 kilometres (20 mi) from the south western peninsula of Kintyre, Norway is 400 kilometres (250 mi) to the north east, and the Faroes and Iceland are to the north. The geographical centre of Scotland lies a few miles from the village of Newtonmore in Badenoch, far to the north of the modern population heartlands.[29]

The territorial extent of Scotland is generally that established by the 1237 Treaty of York between Scotland and England[30] and the 1266 Treaty of Perth between Scotland and Norway.[7] Exceptions include: the Isle of Man, which is now a crown dependency outside the United Kingdom, the 15th century acquisitions of Orkney and Shetland from Norway;[28] and Rockall, a small rocky islet in the North Atlantic which was annexed by the UK in 1955 and later declared part of Scotland by the Island of Rockall Act 1972.[31][32] However, the legality of the claim is disputed by the Republic of Ireland, Denmark and Iceland and it is probably unenforceable in international law.[33][34]


[edit] Geology & geomorphology
Main article: Geology of Scotland
The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation. From a geological perspective the country has three main sub-divisions. The Highlands and Islands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, which runs from Arran to Stonehaven. This part of Scotland largely comprises ancient rocks from the Cambrian and Precambrian which were uplifted during the later Caledonian Orogeny. These foundations are interspersed with many igneous intrusions of a more recent age, the remnants of which have formed mountain massifs such as the Cairngorms and Skye Cuillins. A significant exception to the above are the fossil-bearing beds of Old Red Sandstones found principally along the Moray Firth coast. The Highlands are generally mountainous and are bisected by the Great Glen. The highest elevations in the British Isles are found here, including Ben Nevis, the highest peak at 1,344 metres (4,409 ft). Scotland has over 790 islands, divided into four main groups: Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides, sub-divided into the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides. There are numerous bodies of freshwater including Loch Lomond and Loch Ness.

The Central Lowlands is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations. Many of these sediments have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fuelled Scotland's industrial revolution are to be found. This area has also experienced intense volcanism, Arthur’s Seat in Edinburgh being the remnant of a once much larger volcano active in the Carboniferous period some 300 million years ago. Also known as the Midland Valley, this area is relatively low-lying, although even here hills such as the Ochils and Campsie Fells are rarely far from view.

The Southern Uplands are a range of hills almost 200 km (125 miles) long, interspersed with broad valleys. They lie south of a second fault line running from Stranraer towards Dunbar. The geological foundations largely comprise Silurian deposits laid down some 4-500 million years ago.[6][35][36]


[edit] Climate
Main article: Climate of Scotland

Ben Nevis, the highest peak in the British Isles, is in Lochaber, the wettest district in the British IslesThe climate of Scotland is temperate and oceanic, and tends to be very changeable. It is warmed by the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic, and as such has much milder winters (but cooler, wetter summers) than areas on similar latitudes, for example Oslo or Moscow. However, temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the UK, with the coldest ever UK temperature of -27.2°C (-16.96°F) recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains, on 11 February 1895 and 10 January 1982 and also at Altnaharra, Highland, on 30 December 1995.[37] Winter maximums average 6°C (42.8°F) in the lowlands, with summer maximums averaging 18°C (64.4°F). The highest temperature recorded was 32.9°C (91.22°F) at Greycrook, Scottish Borders on 9 August 2003.[38]

In general, the west of Scotland is usually warmer than the east, due to the influence of the Atlantic ocean currents, and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea. Tiree, in the Inner Hebrides, is one of the sunniest places in the country: it had 300 days of sunshine in 1975. Rainfall varies widely across Scotland. The western highlands of Scotland are the wettest place, with annual rainfall exceeding 3,000 mm (120 inches).[38] In comparison, much of lowland Scotland receives less than 800 mm (31 inches) annually.[38] Heavy snowfall is not common in the lowlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Braemar experiences an average of 59 snow days per year,[39] while coastal areas have an average of fewer than 10 days.[38]


[edit] Flora and fauna
Main article: Fauna of Scotland
Scotland's wildlife is typical of the north west of Europe although several of the larger mammals such as the Brown Bear, Wolf, Eurasian Lynx, Beaver, Reindeer, Elk and Walrus were hunted to extinction in historic times. A population of Wild Cats remains.[40] There are important populations of seals and internationally significant nesting grounds for a variety of seabirds such as Northern Gannets.[41] The Golden Eagle is something of a national icon, and White-tailed Eagles and Ospreys are recent re-colonisations. The Scottish Crossbill is Britain's only endemic bird.[42] The flora of the country is varied incorporating both deciduous and coniferous woodlands, and moorland and tundra species. Significant remnants of the native Scots Pine forest, can be found in places.[43]


[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Scotland

Scottish ten pound notes feature historical figures such as Sir Walter Scott, the Duke of Argyll and Mary SlessorScotland has a highly developed western style open mixed economy which is closely linked with that of the rest of Europe and the wider world. Traditionally, the Scottish economy has been dominated by heavy industry underpinned by the shipbuilding, coal mining and steel industries. Petroleum related industries associated with the extraction of North Sea oil have also been important employers from the 1970s, especially in the north east of Scotland. De-industrialisation during the 1970s and 1980s saw a shift from a manufacturing focus towards a more services orientated economy. Edinburgh is the financial services centre of Scotland and the sixth largest financial centre in Europe in terms of funds under management, behind London, Paris, Frankfurt, Zurich and Amsterdam,[44] with many large finance firms based there, including: the Royal Bank of Scotland (the second largest bank in Europe); HBOS (owners of the Bank of Scotland); and Standard Life.

In 2005, total Scottish exports (excluding intra-UK trade) were provisionally estimated to be £17.5 billion, of which 70% (£12.2 billion) were attributable to manufacturing.[45] Scotland's primary exports include whisky, electronics and financial services. The United States, The Netherlands, Germany, France and Spain constitute the country's major export markets.[45] In 2002, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Scotland was just over £78.5 billion, giving a per capita GDP of £15,523.[46] As of 2006, the unemployment rate in Scotland stood at 5.1% - marginally above the UK average, but lower than in the majority of EU countries.[47]

Although the Bank of England is the central bank for the UK, three Scottish clearing banks still issue their own Sterling banknotes: the Bank of Scotland; the Royal Bank of Scotland; and the Clydesdale Bank. These notes have no status as legal tender anywhere in the United Kingdom, although they are fungible with the Bank of England banknotes.[48] Despite this, Scottish-issued notes are often refused in England and they are not always accepted by banks and exchange bureaus outside the UK. The Royal Bank of Scotland still produces a £1 note, unique among British banks.[49] The current value of the Scottish banknotes in circulation is £1.5 billion.[48]

For more details on this topic, see British banknotes.

[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Scotland
See also: Language in Scotland and Religion in Scotland

The ruins of St Andrew's Cathedral in FifeThe population of Scotland in the 2001 census was 5,062,011. This has risen to 5,116,900 according to June 2006 estimates.[50] This would make Scotland the 112th largest country by population if it were a sovereign state. Although Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland it is not the largest city. With a population of 629,501, this honour falls to Glasgow. Indeed, the Greater Glasgow conurbation, with a population of up to 2.2 million, is home to almost half of Scotland's population.[51][52]

The Central Belt is where most of the main towns and cities are located. Glasgow is to the west whilst the other three main cities of Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen lie on the east coast. The Highlands are sparsely populated although the city of Inverness has experienced rapid growth in recent years. In general only the more accessible and larger islands retain human populations and fewer than 90 are currently inhabited. The Southern Uplands are essentially rural in nature and dominated by agriculture and forestry.[53][54]

Due to immigration since World War II, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Dundee have significant ethnically Asian populations.[55] Since the recent Enlargement of the European Union there has been an increased number of people from Central and Eastern Europe moving to Scotland, and it is estimated that between 40,000 and 50,000 Poles are now in living in the country.[56] As of 2001, there are 16,315 ethnic Chinese residents in Scotland.[57]

Scotland has three officially recognised languages: English, Scots and Scottish Gaelic. Almost all Scots speak Scottish Standard English, and in 1996 the General Register Office for Scotland estimated that 30% of the population are fluent in Scots.[58] Gaelic is mostly spoken in the Western Isles, where a majority of people still speak it, however nationally its use is confined to just 1% of the population.[59]

The Church of Scotland, also sometimes popularly known as The Kirk, is the national church and has a Presbyterian system of church government. Other Christian denominations in Scotland include the Free Church of Scotland, the Scottish Episcopal Church, and Roman Catholicism. The latter survived the Reformation, on islands like Uist and Barra, and was strengthened, particularly in the west of Scotland, during the 19th century by immigration from Ireland. Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Scotland (estimated population, 50,000).[60] There are also significant Jewish and Sikh communities, especially in Glasgow. 28% of the population regard themselves as belonging to 'no religion'.[60]


[edit] Military
Main article: Military of Scotland

Vanguard class submarines of the Royal Navy, which carry the UK's nuclear deterrent, are based in ScotlandAlthough Scotland has a long military tradition that predates the Act of Union with England, its armed forces now form part of the British Armed Forces. In 2006, the regiments of the Scottish Division were amalgamated to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland.

Due to their topography and perceived remoteness, parts of Scotland have housed many sensitive defence establishments, with mixed public feelings. Between 1960 and 1991, the Holy Loch was a base for the U.S. fleet of Polaris ballistic missile submarines. Today, Her Majesty's Naval Base Clyde, 25 miles (40 km) west of Glasgow, is the base for the four Trident-armed Vanguard class ballistic missile submarines that comprise the UK's nuclear deterrent. HMS Caledonia at Rosyth in Fife is the support base for navy operations in Scotland and also serves as the Naval Regional Office (NRO Scotland and Northern Ireland). The Royal Navy's submarine nuclear reactor development establishment is located at Dounreay, which was also the site of the UK's fast breeder nuclear reactor programme. HMS Gannet is a search and rescue station based at Prestwick Airport in Ayrshire and operates three Sea King Mk 5 helicopters. RM Condor at Arbroath, Angus is home to 45 Commando, Royal Marines.

Three important Royal Air Force bases are in Scotland today. These are RAF Lossiemouth, the RAF's primary base for the Panavia Tornado GR4 strike aircraft, RAF Kinloss, home to the Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft and RAF Leuchars, the most northerly air defence fighter base in the United Kingdom. The only open air live depleted uranium weapons test range in the British Isles is located near Dundrennan.[61] As a result, over 7000 radioactive munitions lie on the seabed of the Solway Firth.[62] This has led to many environmental concerns.[63] The large number of military bases in Scotland has led some to use the euphemism "Fortress Scotland".[64] In 2005, the MoD land holdings in Scotland (owned, leased or with legal rights) was 115,300 hectares representing 31.5% of the MoD's UK estate.[65]


[edit] Education
Main article: Education in Scotland
The education system in Scotland is distinct from the rest of the United Kingdom and was the first country since Sparta in classical Greece to implement a system of general public education.[66] Schooling was made compulsory for the first time in Scotland with the Education Act of 1496 since it forced all nobles and freeholders to educate their eldest sons in Latin, followed by the Arts, and Scots law. Then, in 1561, the Kirk set out a national programme for spiritual reform, including a school in every parish. Education continued to be a matter for the church rather than the state until the Education Act of 1872. As a result, for over two hundred years Scotland had a higher percentage of its population educated at primary, secondary and tertiary levels than any other country in Europe.[citation needed]

Today, children in Scotland sit Standard Grade exams at the age of 15 or 16, sometimes earlier, for up to eight subjects (although some schools study for nine) including compulsory exams in English, mathematics, a foreign language, a science subject and a social subject. Each school may vary these compulsory combinations. The school leaving age is 16, after which students may choose to remain at school and study for Access, Intermediate or Higher Grade and Advanced Higher exams. A small number of students at certain private, independent schools may follow the English system and study towards GCSEs instead of Standard Grades, and towards A and AS-Levels instead of Higher Grade and Advanced Higher exams.

The Scottish Funding Council funds over forty further and higher education colleges where students can study for more vocational qualifications; degree-entry qualifications such as diplomas; and specialist courses in the arts or agriculture. Scotland has 13 universities and one university college. This includes the four ancient universities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and St Andrews which were founded during the mediaeval period. Bachelor's degrees at Scottish universities are bestowed after four years of study, some conferred by the ancient universities being confusingly known as Masters of Arts (MA), with the option to graduate with an ordinary degree after three years or continue with the fourth year of study to obtain an honours degree. Unlike the rest of the United Kingdom, Scottish students studying at a Scottish university do not have to pay for tuition fees. The Students Awards Agency for Scotland (SAAS) pay course fees for all Scottish students domiciled in Scotland and offer bursaries to eligible students. Scottish students have the option of accepting a loan from the Student Loans Company (SLC), and if eligible, this is paid back after graduation. Scottish students studying outside of Scotland but within the UK have to pay for tuition, but at a reduced rate depending upon how much their chosen institution charges. All Scottish universities attract a high percentage of overseas students, and many have links with overseas institutions.


[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Scotland
See also: Music in Scotland, Scottish Literature, Media in Scotland, Cuisine of Scotland, and Sport in Scotland

A piper playing the Great Highland BagpipeOver the course of many centuries, an amalgamation of various traditions has moulded the culture of Scotland. There is a robust arts scene, with both music and literature heavily influenced by Scottish sources and a variety of national media outlets. Several Scottish sporting traditions are unique to the British Isles, and co-exist with more popular games such as Football and Rugby.

The Scottish music scene is a significant aspect of Scottish culture, with both traditional and modern influences. An example of a traditional Scottish instrument is the Great Highland Bagpipe, a wind instrument consisting of one or more musical pipes which are fed continuously by a reservoir of air in a bag. The Clàrsach, fiddle and accordion are also traditional Scottish instruments, the latter two heavily featured in Scottish country dance bands. Scottish emigrants took traditional Scottish music with them and it influenced early local styles such as country music in North America. Today, there are many successful Scottish bands and individual artists in varying styles.[67]

Scottish literature includes text written in English, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, French, and Latin. The poet and songwriter Robert Burns wrote in the Scots language, although much of his writing is also in English and in a "light" Scots dialect which is more accessible to a wider audience. Similarly, the writings of Sir Walter Scott and Arthur Conan Doyle were internationally successful during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries.[68] J. M. Barrie introduced the movement known as the "kailyard tradition" at the end of the 19th century, which brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion.[69] This tradition has been viewed as a major stumbling block for Scottish literature, as it focused on an idealised, pastoral picture of Scottish culture.[69] Some modern novelists, such as Irvine Welsh (of Trainspotting fame), write in a distinctly Scottish English that reflects the harsher realities of contemporary life.[70]

The national broadcaster is BBC Scotland (BBC Alba in Gaelic), a constituent part of the British Broadcasting Corporation, the publicly-funded broadcaster of the United Kingdom. It runs two national television stations and the national radio stations, BBC Radio Scotland and BBC Radio nan Gaidheal amongst others. The main Scottish commercial television station is STV. National newspapers such as the Daily Record, The Herald, and The Scotsman are all produced in Scotland.[71] Important regional dailies include The Courier in Dundee in the east, and The Press and Journal serving Aberdeen and the north.[71]


The Old Course at St Andrews.Sport is an important element in Scottish culture, with the country hosting many of its own national sporting competitions, and enjoying independent representation at many international sporting events such as the FIFA World Cup, the Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games (although not the Olympic Games). Scotland has its own national governing bodies, such as the Scottish Football Association (the second oldest national football association in the world)[72] and the Scottish Rugby Union. Variations of football have been played in Scotland for centuries with the earliest reference being in 1424.[73] Association football is now the national sport and the Scottish Cup is the world's oldest national trophy.[74] The Fife town of St. Andrews is known internationally as the Home of Golf[75] and to many golfers the Old Course, an ancient links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage.[76] There are many other famous golf courses in Scotland, including Carnoustie, Gleneagles, Muirfield and Royal Troon. Other distinctive features of the national sporting culture include the Highland games, curling and shinty. Scotland played host to the Commonwealth Games in 1970 and 1986.


[edit] Transport
Main article: Transport in Scotland

A Loganair aircraft at Barra Airport, the only airport in the world where scheduled air services land on a beach runwayScotland has four main international airports (Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Prestwick) which together serve 107 international destinations with a wide variety of scheduled and chartered flights.[77]. Highland and Islands Airports operate 10 regional airports serving the more remote locations of Scotland.[78] There is technically no national airline, however various airlines have their base in Scotland including Loganair (operates as a franchise of British Airways), bmi regional[79] Flyglobespan, City Star Airlines, and ScotAirways.

Scotland has a large and expanding rail network, which, following the Railways Act of 2005, is now managed independently from the rest of the UK by Transport Scotland.[80] The East Coast and West Coast Main Railway lines and the Cross Country Line connect the major cities and towns of Scotland with the English network. First ScotRail operate services within Scotland. The Scottish Executive has pursued a policy of building new railway lines, and reopening closed ones. Operators to English destinations include First ScotRail, GNER and Virgin Trains.

The Scottish motorways and major trunk roads are managed by Transport Scotland. The rest of the road network is managed by the Scottish local authorities in each of their areas. The country's busiest motorway is the M8 which runs from the outskirts of Edinburgh to central Glasgow, and on to Renfrewshire.[81]

Regular ferry services operate between the Scottish mainland and island communities. These services are mostly run by Caledonian MacBrayne, but some are operated by local councils. Other ferry routes, served by multiple companies, connect to Northern Ireland, Belgium, Norway, the Faroe Islands and also Iceland.


[edit] National symbols

The distinctive Royal Stewart Tartan is the personal tartan of Queen Elizabeth II.The Flag of Scotland, the Saltire or St. Andrew's Cross, dates (at least in legend) from the 9th century, and is thus the oldest national flag still in use. The Saltire now also forms part of the design of the Union Flag.
The Royal Standard of Scotland, a banner showing the Royal Arms of Scotland, is also frequently to be seen, particularly at sporting events involving a Scottish team. Often called the Lion Rampant (after its chief heraldic device), it is technically the property of the monarch and its use by anybody else is illegal, although this is almost universally ignored, and never enforced.
The unicorn is also used as a heraldic symbol of Scotland. The Royal Coat of Arms of Scotland, used prior to 1603 by the Kings of Scotland, incorporated a lion rampant shield supported by two unicorns. On the Union of the Crowns, the Arms were quartered with those of England and Ireland, and one unicorn was replaced by a lion (the supporters of England).
William Wallace, a national hero and a leader in the Scottish Wars of Independence.
The thistle, the floral emblem of Scotland, features in many Scottish symbols and logos, and on UK currency. Heather is also considered to be a symbol of Scotland.
Flower of Scotland is popularly held to be the National Anthem of Scotland, and is played at international events such as football or rugby matches involving the Scotland national team. However, since devolution, more serious discussion of a national anthem has led to this being disputed. Other candidates include Scots Wha Hae, Scotland the Brave and A Man's A Man for A' That.[82]
Tartan is a specific woven textile pattern that often signifies a particular Scottish clan, as featured in a kilt.
St Andrew's Day, the 30th of November, is the national day, although Burns' Night tends to be more widely observed. Tartan Day is a recent innovation from Canada. In 2006, the Scottish Parliament passed the St. Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007, designating the day to be an official bank holiday.[83]

Picts


The Picts were a confederation of tribes in what later was to become central and northern Scotland from Roman times until the 10th century. They lived to the north of the Forth and Clyde. They were the descendants of the Caledonii and other tribes named by Roman historians or found on the world map of Ptolemy. Pictland, also known as Pictavia, became the Kingdom of Alba during the 10th century and the Picts became the Fir Alban, the men of Scotland.



The name by which the Picts called themselves is unknown. The Greek word Πικτοί (Latin Picti) first appears in a panegyric written by Eumenius in AD 297 and is taken to mean "painted or tattooed people" (Latin pingere "paint"). The Gaels of Ireland and Dál Riata called the Picts Cruithne, (Old Irish cru(i)then-túath), presumably from Proto-Celtic *kwriteno-toutā. There were also people referred to as Cruithne in Ulster, in particular the kings of Dál nAraidi.[1] The Britons (later the Welsh and Cornish) in the south knew them, in the P-Celtic form of "Cruithne", as Prydyn; the terms "Britain" and "Briton" come from the same root.[2] Their Old English name gave the modern Scots form Pechts.[3]



Archaeology gives some impression of the society of the Picts. Although very little in the way of Pictish writing has survived, Pictish history, from the late 6th century onwards, is known from a variety of sources, including saints' lives, such as that of Columba by Adomnán, and various Irish annals. Although the popular impression of the Picts may be one of an obscure, mysterious people, this is far from being the case. When compared with the generality of Northern, Central and Eastern Europe in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, Pictish history and society are well attested.[4]




[edit] Society

The harper on the Dupplin Cross, Scotland, circa 800 ADThe archaeological record provides evidence of the material culture of the Picts. It tells of a society not readily distinguishable from its similar Gaelic and British neighbours, nor very different from the Anglo-Saxons to the south.[5] Although analogy and knowledge of other "Celtic" societies may be a useful guide, these extended across a very large area. Relying on knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul, or 13th century Ireland, as a guide to the Picts of the 6th century may be misleading if analogy is pursued too far.[6]



As with most peoples in the north of Europe in Late Antiquity, the Picts were farmers living in small communities. Cattle and horses were an obvious sign of wealth and prestige, sheep and pigs were kept in large numbers, and place names suggest that transhumance was common. Animals were small by later standards, although horses from Britain were imported into Ireland as breed-stock to enlarge native horses. From Irish sources it appears that the élite engaged in competitive cattle-breeding for size, and this may have been the case in Pictland also. Carvings show hunting with dogs, and also, unlike in Ireland, with falcons. Cereal crops included wheat, barley, oats and rye. Vegetables included kale, cabbage, onions and leeks, peas and beans, turnips and carrots, and some types no longer common, such as skirret. Plants such as wild garlic, nettles and watercress may have been gathered in the wild. The pastoral economy meant that hides and leather were readily available. Wool was the main source of fibres for clothing, and flax was also common, although it is not clear if it was grown for fibres, for oil, or as a foodstuff. Fish, shellfish, seals and whales were exploited along coasts and rivers. The importance of domesticated animals argues that meat and milk products were a major part of the diet of ordinary people, while the élite would have eaten a diet rich in meat from farming and hunting.[7]

No Pictish counterparts to the areas of denser settlement around important fortresses in Gaul and southern Britain, or any other significant urban settlements, are known. Larger, but not large, settlements existed around royal forts, such as at Burghead, or associated with religious foundations.[8] No towns are known in Scotland until the 12th century.[9]

The technology of everyday life is not well recorded, but archaeological evidence shows it to have been similar to that in Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England. Recently evidence has been found of watermills in Pictland. Kilns were used for drying kernels of wheat or barley, not otherwise easy in the changeable, temperate climate.[10]

The early Picts are associated with piracy and raiding along the coasts of Roman Britain. Even in the Late Middle Ages, the line between traders and pirates was unclear, so that Pictish pirates were probably merchants on other occasions. It is generally assumed that trade collapsed with the Roman Empire, but this is to overstate the case. There is only limited evidence of long-distance trade with Pictland, but tableware and storage vessels from Gaul, probably transported up the Irish Sea, have been found. This trade may have been controlled from Dunadd in Dál Riata, where such goods appear to have been common. While long-distance travel was unusual in Pictish times, it was far from unknown as stories of missionaries, travelling clerics and exiles show.[11]


Reconstructed crannog on Loch TayBrochs are popularly associated with the Picts. Although these were built earlier in the Iron Age, with construction ending around 100 AD, they remained in use into and beyond the Pictish period.[12] Crannogs, which may originate in Neolithic Scotland, may have been rebuilt, and some were still in use in the time of the Picts.[13] The most common sort of buildings would have been roundhouses and rectangular timbered halls.[14] While many churches were built in wood, from the early 8th century, if not earlier, some were built in stone.[15]

The Picts are often said to have tattooed themselves, but evidence for this is limited. Naturalistic depictions of Pictish nobles, hunters and warriors, male and female, without obvious tattoos, are found on monumental stones. These stones include inscriptions in Latin and Ogham script, not all of which have been deciphered. The well known Pictish symbols found on stones, and elsewhere, are obscure in meaning. A variety of esoteric explanations have been offered, but the simplest conclusion may be that these symbols represent the names of those who had raised, or are commemorated on the stones. Pictish art can be classed as Celtic, and later as Insular.[16] Irish poets portrayed their Pictish counterparts as very much like themselves.[17]



[edit] Religion
Early Pictish religion is presumed to have resembled Celtic polytheism in general, although only place names remain from the pre-Christian era. The date at which the Pictish elite converted to Christianity is uncertain, but there are traditions which place Saint Palladius in Pictland after leaving Ireland, and link Abernethy with Saint Brigid of Kildare.[18] Saint Patrick refers to "apostate Picts", while the poem Y Gododdin does not remark on the Picts as pagans.[19] Bede wrote that Saint Ninian (identified with Saint Finnian of Moville, who died c. 589), had converted the southern Picts.[20] Recent archaeological work at Portmahomack places the foundation of the monastery there, an area once assumed to be among the last converted, in the late 6th century.[21] This is contemporary with Bridei mac Maelchon and Columba, but the process of establishing Christianity throughout Pictland will have extended over a much longer period.

Pictland was not solely influenced by Iona and Ireland. It also had ties to churches in Northumbria, as seen in the reign of Nechtan mac Der Ilei. The reported expulsion of Ionan monks and clergy by Nechtan in 717 may have been related to the controversy over the dating of Easter, and the manner of tonsure, where Nechtan appears to have supported the Roman usages, but may equally have been intended to increase royal power over the church.[22] Nonetheless, the evidence of place names suggests a wide area of Ionan influence in Pictland.[23] Likewise, the Cáin Adomnáin (Law of Adomnán, Lex Innocentium) counts Nechtan's brother Bridei among its guarantors.

The importance of monastic centres in Pictland was not perhaps as great as in Ireland. In areas which had been studied, such as Strathspey and Perthshire, it appears that the parochial structure of the High Middle Ages existed in early medieval times. Among the major religious sites of eastern Pictland were Portmahomack, Cennrígmonaid (later St Andrews), Dunkeld, Abernethy and Rosemarkie. It appears that these are associated with Pictish kings, which argues for a considerable degree of royal patronage and control of the church.[24]

The cult of Saints was, as throughout Christian lands, of great importance in later Pictland. While kings might patronise great Saints, such as Saint Peter in the case of Nechtan, and perhaps Saint Andrew in the case of the second Óengus mac Fergusa, many lesser Saints, some now obscure, were important. The Pictish Saint Drostan appears to have had a wide following in the north in earlier times, although all but forgotten by the 12th century. Saint Serf of Culross was associated with Nechtan's brother Bridei.[25] It appears, as is well known in later times, that noble kin groups had their own patron saints, and their own churches or abbeys.[26]


[edit] History
The means by which the Pictish confederation formed in Late Antiquity from a number of tribes are as obscure as the processes which created the Franks, the Alamanni and similar confederations in Germany. The presence of the Roman Empire, unfamiliar in size, culture, political systems and ways of making war, should be noted. Nor can we ignore the wealth and prestige that control of trade with Rome offered.[27]

Pictland had previously been described as the home of the Caledonii.[28] Other tribes said to have lived in the area included the Verturiones, Taexali and Venicones.[29] Except for the Caledonians, the names may be second- or third-hand: perhaps as reported to the Romans by speakers of Brythonic or Gaulish languages.[30]

Pictish recorded history begins in the so-called Dark Ages. It appears that they were not the dominant power in Northern Britain for the entire period. Firstly the Gaels of Dál Riata dominated the region, but suffered a series of defeats in the first third of the 7th century.[31] The Angles of Bernicia overwhelmed the adjacent British kingdoms, and the neighbouring Anglian kingdom of Deira (Bernicia and Deira later being called Northumbria), was to become the most powerful kingdom in Britain.[32] The Picts were probably tributary to Northumbria until the reign of Bridei map Beli, when the Anglians suffered a defeat at the battle of Dunnichen which halted their expansion northwards. The Northumbrians continued to dominate southern Scotland for the remainder of the Pictish period.

In the reign of Óengus mac Fergusa (729–761), Dál Riata was very much subject to the Pictish king. Although it had its own kings from the 760s, it appears that Dál Riata did not recover.[33] A later Pictish king, Caustantín mac Fergusa (793–820) placed his son Domnall on the throne of Dál Riata (811–835).[34] Pictish attempts to achieve a similar dominance over the Britons of Alt Clut (Dumbarton) were not successful.[35]

The Viking Age brought great changes in Britain and Ireland, no less in Scotland than elsewhere. The kingdom of Dál Riata was destroyed, certainly by the middle of the 9th century, when Ketil Flatnose is said to have founded the Kingdom of the Isles. Northumbria too succumbed to the Vikings, who founded the Kingdom of York, and the kingdom of Strathclyde was also greatly affected. The king of Fortriu Eógan mac Óengusa, the king of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta, and many more, were killed in a major battle against the Vikings in 839.[36] The rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) in the 840s, in the aftermath of this disaster, brought to power the family who would preside over the last days of the Pictish kingdom and found the new kingdom of Alba, although Cínaed himself was never other than king of the Picts.

In the reign of Cínaed's grandson, Caustantín mac Áeda (900–943), the kingdom of the Picts became the kingdom of Alba. The change from Pictland to Alba may not have been noticeable at first; indeed, as we do not know the Pictish name for their land, it may not have been a change at all. The Picts, along with their language, did not disappear suddenly. The process of Gaelicisation, which may have begun generations earlier, continued under Caustantín and his successors. When the last inhabitants of Alba were fully Gaelicised, becoming Scots, probably during the 11th century, the Picts were soon forgotten.[37] Later they would reappear in myth and legend.[38]


[edit] Pictish kings and kingdoms

Map showing the approximate areas of the kingdom of Fortriu and neighbours c. 800, and the kingdom of Alba c. 900See also: List of Kings of the Picts.

The early history of Pictland is, as has been said, unclear. In later periods multiple kings existed, ruling over separate kingdoms, with one king, sometimes two, more or less dominating their lesser neighbours.[39] De Situ Albanie, a late document, the Pictish Chronicle, the Duan Albanach, along with Irish legends, have been used to argue the existence of seven Pictish kingdoms. These are as follows, those in bold are known to have had kings, or are otherwise attested in the Pictish period:

Cait, situated in modern Caithness and Sutherland
Ce, situated in modern Mar and Buchan
Circinn, perhaps situated in modern Angus and the Mearns[40]
Fib, the modern Fife, known to this day as 'the Kingdom of Fife'
Fidach, location unknown
Fotla, modern Atholl (Ath-Fotla)[41]
Fortriu, cognate with the Verturiones of the Romans; recently shown to be centered around Moray[42]
More small kingdoms may have existed. Some evidence suggest that a Pictish kingdom also existed in Orkney.[43] De Situ Albanie is not the most reliable of sources, and the number of kingdoms, one for each of the seven sons of Cruithne, the eponymous founder of the Picts, may well be grounds enough for disbelief.[44] Regardless of the exact number of kingdoms and their names, the Pictish nation was not a united one.

For most of Pictish recorded history the kingdom of Fortriu appears dominant, so much so that king of Fortriu and king of the Picts may mean one and the same thing in the annals. This was previously thought to lie in the area around Perth and the southern Strathearn, whereas recent work has convinced those working in the field that Moray (a name referring to a very much larger area in the High Middle Ages than the county of Moray), was the core of Fortriu.[45]

The Picts are often said to have practised matrilineal succession on the basis of Irish legends and a statement in Bede's history. In fact, Bede merely says that the Picts used matrilineal succession in exceptional cases.[46] The kings of the Picts when Bede was writing were Bridei and Nechtan, sons of Der Ilei, who indeed claimed the throne through their mother Der Ilei, daughter of an earlier Pictish king.[47]

In Ireland, kings were expected to come from among those who had a great-grandfather who had been king.[48] Kingly fathers were not frequently succeeded by their sons, not because the Picts practised matrilineal succession, but because they were usually followed by their brothers or cousins, more likely to be experienced men with the authority and the support necessary to be king.[49]

The nature of kingship changed considerably during the centuries of Pictish history. While kings had to be successful war leaders to maintain their authority, kingship became rather less personalised and more institutionalised during this time. Bureaucratic kingship was still far in the future when Pictland became Alba, but the support of the church, and the apparent ability of a small number of families to control the kingship for much of the period from the later 7th century onwards, provided a considerable degree of continuity. In the much same period, the Picts' neighbours in Dál Riata and Northumbria faced considerable difficulties as the stability of succession and rule which they had previously benefitted from came to an end.[50]

The later Mormaers are thought to have originated in Pictish times, and to have been copied from, or inspired by, Northumbrian usages.[51] It is unclear whether the Mormaers were originally former kings, royal officials, or local nobles, or some combination of these. Likewise, the Pictish shires and thanages, traces of which are found in later times, are thought to have been adopted from their southern neighbours.[52]


[edit] Language
Main article: Pictish language
The Pictish language has not survived. Evidence is limited to place names and to the names of people found on monuments and the contemporary records. The evidence of place-names and personal names argue strongly that the Picts spoke Insular Celtic languages related to the more southerly Brythonic languages.[53] A number of inscriptions have been argued to be non-Celtic, and on this basis, it has been suggested that non-Celtic languages were also in use.[54]

The absence of surviving written material in Pictish does not mean a pre-literate society. The church certainly required literacy, and could not function without copyists to produce liturgical documents. Pictish iconography shows books being read, and carried, and its naturalistic style gives every reason to suppose that such images were of real life. Literacy was not widespread, but among the senior clergy, and in monasteries, it would have been common enough.[55]

Place-names often allow us to deduce the existence of historic Pictish settlements in Scotland. Those prefixed with "Aber-", "Lhan-", or "Pit-" indicate regions inhabited by Picts in the past (for example: Aberdeen, Lhanbryde, Pitmedden, Pittodrie etc). Some of these, such as "Pit-" (portion, share), were formed after Pictish times, and may refer to previous "shires" or "thanages".[56]

The evidence of place-names may also reveal the advance of Gaelic into Pictland. As noted, Atholl, meaning New Ireland, is attested in the early 8th century. This may be an indication of the advance of Gaelic. Fortriu also contains place-names suggesting Gaelic settlement, or Gaelic influences.[57]

On William II

source: Wikipedia

William III of England (The Hague, 14 November 1650 – Kensington Palace, 8 March 1702; also known as William II of Scotland and William III of Orange) was a Dutch aristocrat and a Protestant Prince of Orange from his birth, Stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic from 28 June 1672, King of England and King of Ireland from 13 February 1689, and King of Scotland from 11 April 1689, in each case until his death.

Born a member of the House of Orange-Nassau, William III won the English, Scottish and Irish Crowns following the Glorious Revolution, during which his uncle and father-in-law, James II, was deposed. In England, Scotland and Ireland, William ruled jointly with his wife, Mary II, until her death on 28 December 1694. He reigned as 'William II' in Scotland, but 'William III' in all his other realms. Among Unionists in Northern Ireland, he is today informally known as King Billy.

William III was appointed to the Dutch post of Stadtholder on 28 June 1672 (Old Style), and remained in office until he died. In that context, he is sometimes referred to as 'William Henry, Prince of Orange', as a translation of his Dutch title, Willem Hendrik, Prins van Oranje. A Protestant, William participated in many wars against the powerful Catholic King Louis XIV of France. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith; it was partly due to such a reputation that he was able to take the crown of England, many of whose people were intensely fearful of Catholicism and the papacy, although other reasons for his success might be his army and a fleet four times larger than the famed Spanish Armada. His reign marked the beginning of the transition from the personal control of government of the Stuarts to the Parliamentary type rule of the House of Hanover.